Iceland - Ultima Thule, a country in the far north.

The discovery of Iceland is attributed to the Greek explorer Pytheas, who embarked on an epic voyage of exploration to northwestern Europe around 325 BC. He mentioned a land called Ultima Thule or Thule, lying far to the north, beyond Britain, and reachable by a six-day journey across the frozen sea. He also describes the phenomenon of the Midnight Sun. Later medieval maps depicted Iceland as Thule.

Settlement (870–930)

The first permanent settler of Iceland was the wealthy and influential Norwegian chieftain Ingólfur Arnarson, who set out to settle in Iceland in AD 874. Together with his wife Hallveig Fróðadóttir, he built a farmhouse on the land he named Reykjavík.

Most of the first settlers in Iceland came from western Norway, though some also came from other Scandinavian countries and Norse settlements in the British Isles during the Viking Age. The settlers from Norway were mostly large farmers and powerful chieftains dissatisfied with the excessive power of King Harald I (Harald Fairhair). With their families, relatives, serfs, and livestock, they sailed in open boats and settled on plains along the coast where farming was possible. They established large farms and made a living mainly from cattle breeding and some fishing. According to the earliest Icelandic sources, when the Norse settlers arrived in Iceland, there were already some Irish monks living there, but they soon left.

At first, there was no central administration or government, but the first settlers continued Norway's legal tradition and the regional legal assemblies (Thing/Þing) led by chieftains (goðar; goði - chief). These local meetings were held regularly every spring and autumn.

Commonwealth (930-1262)

In AD 930, the first Althing (Alþingi), Iceland's parliament, was established on lands later called Thingvellir, and a constitution based on Norway's was adopted for the entire country. The Althing served both legislative and judicial functions, and met annually for 14 days in mid-summer. Laws were formulated, examined, and amended by the Law Council, which consisted of goðar and their counsellors. The Law Council selected the Lawspeaker, whose duty was to memorize the law and quote from it. (The laws of the Althing were not written down until AD 1117–18.) Every goði (chief) had to participate in the reading of the laws.

The convening of the first Althing in 930 marked the beginning of the independent republic. This era of governance is known as the Icelandic Commonwealth (Þjóðveldið) or the Free State; “the Golden Age of Iceland.” The period from 930 to 1030 is called the Saga Age, as most of the events later recorded in the Icelandic sagas (in the 12th and 13th centuries) actually occurred during this period. In fact, many significant events described in the sagas took place at Thingvellir. It was also at Thingvellir, in 999 or 1000, that Iceland converted to Christianity.

The first bishopric in Iceland was established in Skálholt in 1082, with a second one in Hólar in 1106. Hólar's first bishop, Jón Ögmundsson, was eager to erase all traces of paganism, and succeeded in changing the names of the days of the week named after pagan gods. Thus, after Tyr (Tuesday) came týsdagr, after Odin (Wednesday) óðinsdagr, after Thor (Thursday) þórsdagr, and after Frigg (Friday) frijadagr, became: “third day” (þriðjudagur), “midweek day” (miðvikudagur), “fifth day” (fimmtudagur), and “fasting day” (föstudagur). He also banned dance and love poetry.

The so-called Age of Writing, from the 1120s to the 1230s, was a period of remarkable literary achievement. Most Icelandic sagas and vital historical works—Íslendingabók and Heimskringla—were written in this period. The first national history, Íslendingabók, was written around 1130 by Ari Þorgilsson, called Ari the Wise (fróði Ari, 1067–1148). Heimskringla (History of the Kings of Norway) was written by Snorri Sturluson (1179–1241).

1220 marks the beginning of the “Age of the Sturlungs” (Sturlungaöld). This was a period of internal conflict in Iceland, and the last chapter of nearly 400 years as an independent and free state. The Sturlungs were members of the most powerful clan; among them were authors of classic Icelandic sagas. The most famous and greatest of them all was Snorri Sturluson. Through marriages and political alliances, the Sturlungs dominated much of the country, but other chieftains and influential families opposed them. Long-lasting disputes and power struggles among the clans led to economic and social devastation. At this time, King Hákon Hákonarson of Norway (King Haakon IV) was expanding his influence in Iceland as part of his campaign to unite all Norse Viking Age settlements. Many of the most prominent Icelandic chieftains became followers of the King, but Snorri Sturluson fell out of favor due to his support for the King's rival, Earl Skúli. In 1241, at King Haakon's instigation, Snorri Sturluson was killed in Reykholt. Eventually, between 1262 and 1264, Icelandic chieftains were persuaded, in part by the promise of peace, to swear allegiance to King Haakon IV of Norway. 1262 marks the end of the Icelandic Commonwealth era.

Iceland Under Foreign Rule

Under the Kingdom of Norway, Icelanders became dependent on Norwegian ships for supplies, which were often unavailable. This led to a period of great hardship and desolation. Ice frequently blocked the fjords and maritime approaches. Fierce volcanic eruptions, recurring epidemics, and famines devastated the entire country. In 1349 the Black Death struck Norway, cutting off all trade and supplies.

In 1380, the Norwegian monarchy entered into union with Denmark; yet this did not affect Iceland's status. When the Kalmar Union was established in 1397, joining Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, Iceland came under the Danish crown. Conditions in the country deteriorated further. Icelandic chieftains were replaced by Danish royal officials. Everything became subject to a court; judges were appointed by royal officers.

At the start of the 15th century, between 1402 and 1404, the Black Death reached Iceland and killed more than a third of the population. During 1540–1550, Lutheranism was imposed on Iceland by order of the Danish king, and the first Lutheran bishop was installed at Skálholt. Opposition in Iceland to the Reformation ended in 1550 with the beheading of Jón Arason, the last Catholic bishop. In 1602 Denmark established a trade monopoly forbidding Iceland from trading with any country other than Denmark, accelerating a period of extreme poverty. The monopoly lasted until 1787. The Danish Crown also tightened its constitutional hold over Iceland. In 1662, the Danish King adopted hereditary power, absolute monarchy was imposed in Iceland, and the authority of the Althing was significantly curtailed.

The 18th century in Iceland was tragic, marked by population decline, poverty, and natural disasters. At the first census in 1703, Iceland's population was 50,366, with about 20% in poverty. After the smallpox epidemic in 1707, around 18,000 people died. Subsequent natural disasters and famines over the century caused the population to halve again, dropping below 40,000. The Katla volcano erupted in 1755, and the devastating Laki eruption (Lakagígar) in 1783 brought floods, ash, and toxic fumes leading to famine that killed 10,000 people.

Towards Independence

In 1800, the Althing was dissolved by royal decree and replaced by a High Court. However, in the mid-19th century, a new sense of national identity emerged in Iceland, led by Jón Sigurðsson, the great leader of the Icelandic independence movement. In 1843, the Althing was reestablished as an advisory body, though only a few powerful feudal barons and landowners were elected. In 1848, King Frederick VII of Denmark gave up absolute rule, and Iceland's status within the new form of government was called into question. Jón Sigurðsson argued that the king could return absolute rule only to the Icelanders, as it had been they who had granted it to the Danish Crown in 1662. Moreover, Iceland had originally joined with Norway. Under the agreement of 1262–1264, it was a monarchy with certain rights as a free state.

In 1854, Denmark's trade monopoly was abolished and Iceland finally gained full freedom of trade. Freedom of the press was established in 1855. In 1874, millennium celebrations were held to mark the settlement, and King Christian IX of Denmark visited Iceland. He presented Iceland with a new constitution, granting the Althing legislative authority for internal affairs. In 1904, the constitution was amended and Iceland transferred to home rule. The first Icelandic minister was established in Reykjavik.

The Principle of Sovereignty

The years of national administration (1904–1918) were characterized by economic and social progress, while Iceland's struggle for more autonomy continued. On December 1, 1918, Iceland became the Kingdom of Iceland, a sovereign state in personal union with the King of Denmark.

In 1930, celebrations were held at Thingvellir to mark the millennium of the Althing. This was the first mass national celebration attended by a significant part of the nation. It is estimated that 30,000 to 40,000 people participated.

In 1944, Iceland dissolved its union with Denmark. On June 17, 1944, the Republic of Iceland was established at Thingvellir, Iceland's national sanctuary. June 17 was chosen as it is the birthday of Jón Sigurðsson, one of Iceland's national heroes, “the much-awaited child of Iceland, its honor, sword, and shield.”

The proclamation of the Republic of Iceland marked the end of seven centuries of foreign rule. A new era had begun in Icelandic history.